July 27, 2007

Jail Leaders Speak:
Current and Future Challenges to
Jail Administration and Operations
A Summary Report to the Bureau
of Justice Assistance
July 27, 2007

Authors: Jeanne B. Stinchcomb, Ph.D.
Susan W. McCampbell
The Center for Innovative Public Policies, Inc.
1880 Crestview Way, Naples, Florida 34119
(239) 597-5906
Fax (239) 597-6691
Email: cippinc@aol.com
Web: www.cipp.org

July 27, 2007

This report was supported by Grant No. 2006-MU-MU-K005 awarded by the
Bureau of Justice Assistance. The Bureau of Justice Assistance is a component of
the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice
Statistics, the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. Points of view or
opinions in this document are those of the author and do not represent the official
position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.

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Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgements
Executive Summary
Project Overview
Methodology
• Participant Selection
• Designing the Work Group Sessions
• Notes on Work Group Methodology
• Participant Deliberations
Results
• Identifying Top Ten Issues Facing Jails
• Final Reporting Formats
• Recommendations to BJA
Category 1: Inmate Medical and Mental Health Recommendations
Category 2: Workforce-related Recommendations
Category 3: Recommendations Related to Small Jails
Category 4: Programmatic Recommendations
Category 5: Additional Recommendations
Summary and Conclusions
List of Tables
Table 1: Participant Composition by Organizational Position
Table 2: Participant Composition by Geographic Distribution
Table 3: Participant Composition by Number of Jail Beds
Table 4: Summary of Top Ten Challenges Identified by
Participants Issue and Priority
Table 5: Priority Issues for BJA
Appendices:
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F
Appendix G

4
6
8
9
9
12
14
15
17
17
19
23
26
28
29
30
32
35

11
12
12
17
20

Names of participants
Ice Breaker List
List of Top Ten Issues Identified by Participants
Agendas
Power Point Presentation
Summary of Recommendations to BJA
White Papers

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Acknowledgements
The Center for Innovative Public Policies, Inc. extends thanks to the Bureau
of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U. S. Department of Justice
for providing this opportunity to work with sheriffs and jail administrators from
throughout the country to identify current and future needs, challenges, and
priorities for the nation’s jails. Special appreciation is extended to staff members
Andrew Molloy, Senior Policy Advisor, and Julius C. Dupree, Jr., Policy Advisor, for
their commitment to this project and their ongoing assistance throughout its
implementation.
The importance of this project is reflected in the cooperation offered by
the national professional associations serving jails, whose assistance with
recommending project participants was invaluable. We are most appreciative for
the support provided by Gwyn Smith-Ingley, Executive Director, American Jail
Association; Gil Rivera, Bureau of Indian Affairs; Virginia Hutchinson, Chief, Jails
Division, National Institute of Corrections; and both Fred Wilson and Mike Jackson
of the National Sheriffs’ Association.
Thanks also to Pete Cosgrove, Deputy Director, National Law Enforcement
and Corrections Technology Center, Southeast, and his staff for drafting
background materials, presenting at both work group meetings, and providing
participants with technology-related materials. Especially in light of the
importance of technology in the future of jails, Mr. Cosgrove and his staff were
very valuable assets to this project.
The authors also thank and acknowledge the members of the project team
which included Elizabeth Price Layman, James Layman and Beth Creager Fallon.
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Their help and support was instrumental in creation of the white papers and
management of the working groups.
Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to the forty-five sheriffs and
jail administrators who contributed their time to participate in the work groups.
The outcome of these deliberations reflects their professional knowledge of and
passionate enthusiasm for one of the toughest jobs in the criminal justice system –
managing the nation’s jails.

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Executive Summary
In order to provide the Bureau of Justice Assistance with a valid foundation
for establishing jail-related priorities for funding and other resources, two
national work groups were assembled during May and June, 2007 in western (Las
Vegas) and eastern (Orlando) locations for a day and one-half of intensive
deliberations. Composed of forty-five (45) sheriffs and jail administrators from
forty-four (44) jurisdictions throughout the country, group members were
selected in a manner designed to achieve representative balance on the basis of
both geographic location and jail size. Over the day and one-half period, they
engaged in discussions targeted toward identifying the foremost issues facing the
nation’s jails--now and in the immediate future.
Prior to their deliberations, participants were provided with five briefing
papers as background information designed to stimulate thinking in advance of the
sessions and maximize on-site productivity. The content of these papers addressed
five areas that a review of the literature pointed toward having a significant
likelihood of impacting local corrections; i.e.: demographic projections and crime
trends, workforce issues, inmate management, special populations, and technology.
With the information available in the white papers, participants at each
location collaborated in five small groups based on the size of the jail that they
represented. First, each group was asked to list and discuss the top ten issues
facing jails of their size. Following their reports, groups reconvened to complete
the final task of identifying their top five recommendations to BJA.
In terms of outcomes, it is notable that this qualitative methodology
produces findings that are more insightful and descriptive than impartial and
definitive. With that in mind, group feedback indicates that the predominate
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priority for jails revolves around the pressures of providing adequate medical care
and mental health services within the constraints of inadequate resources.
Following this primary concern are workforce issues ranging from recruitment and
retention difficulties to succession planning and staff training. At the tertiary
level, re-entry initiatives, security threat groups, and technology issues dominated
discussions.
Moreover, a strong underlying current focused on the challenges of small
jails, which are eagerly seeking help in the form of best practices, evidence-based
approaches, and collaborative networking opportunities. But regardless of the jail’s
size, there was likewise a prevalent concern expressed by virtually all
representatives that a concerted effort is needed to educate the community and
elected officials to bring jail-related issues to the forefront of the public policymaking agenda. Otherwise, jails are destined to continue to struggle with their role
as the unacknowledged and under-funded resource for responding to community
problems ranging from inadequate medical care to insufficient mental health
treatment.

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Project Overview
The goal of this project was to solicit the insights and expertise of sheriffs
and jail administrators from across the country as the foundation for a consensus
report identifying the primary issues and challenges facing the nation’s jails, (today
and in the immediate future). This information is then intended to serve as a basis
for determining jail-related funding strategies for the Bureau of Justice
Assistance (BJA).
Sheriffs and jail administrators struggle each day to promote public safety
in the face of escalating populations, expanding responsibilities, and overwhelming
obstacles. The 766,010 inmates who were, on average, in jail on any given day last
year reflects an increase of 2.5% over the previous year.1 Additionally, the 3,365
jails in this country2 are responsible not only for millions of new arrestees who
cycle into and out of their facilities each year, but also for the management of
pre-trial detainees, short-term sentenced offenders, community supervision
programs such as pre-trial release and electronic monitoring, drug and alcohol
diversion programs, work release, and other intermediate sanctions.
The dilemmas encountered by U.S. jails continue to mount as a result of
everything from fiscal constraints and lack of public support to workforce issues,
“tough on crime” legislative initiatives, and unfunded legal mandates such as the
Prison Rape Elimination Act. Likewise, public policies ranging from immigration to
the war on drugs and the deinstitutionalization of persons with mental illness also
have a substantial impact on local corrections.
William J. Sabol, Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2006, U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau
of Justice Statistics, June 2007.
2
James J. Stephen, Census of Jails, 1999, U. S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs,
Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2001, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cj99.pdf
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In an effort to prioritize the widespread challenges confronting the nation’s
jails, two work groups were convened in 2007, comprised of a total of forty-five
(45) sheriffs and jail administrators from throughout the country. Sessions were
conducted in Las Vegas (May 7–8) and Orlando (June 4-5). Prior to the onsite
sessions, participants were provided with background briefing papers (i.e., white
papers) to familiarize them with research on five key topics and encourage them to
begin thinking creatively about these challenges. Following a series of
presentations and group discussions, participants identified the most pressing
issues they face currently, along with those anticipated in the near future. Taking
this list of challenges, the participants then identified what of those challenges
funding and/or initiatives from BJA might have the most impact. Related
discussions and results are summarized throughout the remainder of this report.

Methodology
Participant Selection
When identifying members of the work groups, an important consideration
was the necessity to achieve balanced representation according to both geographic
location and size of the inmate population. Although approximately 50% of inmates
are held in 9% of U.S. jails,3 there are significantly more small jails throughout the
country. Regardless of the size of their inmate population, however, these small
facilities face equally difficult challenges.

James J. Stephen, Census of Jails, 1999, U. S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs,
Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2001, page 3, Table 4.,
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cj99.pdf
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With this in mind, in October, 2006, the project team requested participant
recommendations from the American Jail Association (AJA), the American
Correctional Association (ACA), the National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA), the
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and the Jails Division of the National Institute of
Corrections (NIC). Each organization was also invited to attend the two focus
group sessions as observers. AJA, NSA, BIA, and the NIC Jails Division all
provided recommendations. NSA also attended as an observer in both sessions, and
AJA was able to attend at one location.
Of the nearly 100 names that were recommended, the project team selected
60 to receive invitations, with emphasis on assuring both balanced geographic
distribution and diversity in terms of jail size. Letters were sent in January, 2007,
inviting those selected to one of the two meetings (Las Vegas or Orlando),
depending on their geographic location. By mid-January, most commitments were
received, and logistical arrangements proceeded.4
Although the target number for those attending was 50, (i.e., 25 in each
session), some selected participants had to drop out at the last minute, leaving a
total of 44 total participants. (However, there were actually 45 in attendance, as
one sheriff brought his jail administrator. For purposes of data contained in this
report, these two representatives are combined to reflect one jurisdiction).
While the names and affiliations of all participants are included in Appendix
A, Tables 1, 2, and 3 provide a snapshot of their overall composition in terms of
organizational position, geographic location, and size-related balance. It is

The Cooperative Agreement covered the participants’ travel, hotel, per diem and incidental travel
expenses.
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impressive to note that the total experience in law enforcement and/or corrections
of those who participated in the two focus groups was 1,444 years.
Table 1 displays the distribution of participants according to their
organizational position. In that regard, most were jail administrators working for
elected sheriffs (45.4%). Of the remainder, the majority represented either
elected sheriffs (20.5%) or jail directors responsible to city/county government
(20.5%), followed by regional jail administrators (6.8%), those administering jails in
Indian Country (4.5%), and jail directors working for unified state systems (2.3%).

Table 1: Participant Composition by Organizational Position
Position
Jail Administrators Working for Elected
Sheriffs
Elected Sheriff
Director of Jail Operated by a City/County
Government
Jail Administrators Working for a Regional Jail
Indian Country Jails (working for Tribes)
Director of a Unified State System
Total

# of
Participants
20

% of
Participants
45.4

9
9

20.5
20.5

3
2
1
44

6.8
4.5
2.3
100

Looking at Table 2, it is apparent that the overall composition of the work
groups generally reflects the proportionate geographic distribution of jails
throughout the country, (based on the number of beds in their facilities). In
terms of size, Table 3 indicates that the percentage of participants roughly
coincides with the percentage of inmates held in jails of that size, (although there
is some over-representation in the 1,000-1,999 range and a corresponding underrepresentation in the 2,000+ category).

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Table 2: Participant Composition by Geographic Distribution5
Region
Northeast
South
Midwest
West
Totals

% in Nation
Jails
13.0
48.9
16.5

# of Participants

% of Participants

5
14
10

11.4
31.8
22.7

21.5
99.9

15
44

34.1
100

Table 3: Participant Composition by Number of Jail Beds6
# of Jail Beds
>50 – 99
100-249
250-499
500-999
1,000 – 1,499
1,500 – 1,999
< 2,000
Totals

% of Jails
Nationally
62.9
15.5
7.2
5.6
2.9
1.3
4.6
100

% of Inmates
Nationally
11.6
13.1
12.0
15.2
11.3
6.2
30.4
99.8

# of
Participants
4
8
4
6
10
5
7
44

% of
Participants
9.1
18.2
9.1
13.6
22.7
11.4
15.9
100

Designing the Work Group Sessions
To achieve the outcome of providing specific, prioritized information to
BJA, the project team considered various strategies, both substantively and
procedurally. First, it was necessary to determine what substantive areas to focus
on, and then, how to channel the participants’ onsite efforts in a manner that would
be optimally productive.

Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, Table 6.0003.2005, June 30, 2005.
http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/pdf/t600032005.pdf
6
Stephan, 2001.
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In terms of the substantive focus, a review of the literature and current
trends was conducted by the project team to identify issues with a high likelihood
of impacting local corrections. This resulted in identifying the following five
target areas:
•

Demographic projections and crime trends

•

Workforce issues

•

Inmate management

•

Special populations

•

Technology.
An environmental scan was conducted for four (4) of these five topics

(excluding technology). Given the substantial level of expertise readily available
from the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center (NLECTC),
it did not seem that attempting to duplicate the Center’s knowledge and expertise
would be an economically viable use of the project team’s efforts. Thus, NLECTC’s
assistance was requested and readily received for this component of the project.7
In order to proactively stimulate consideration of the future of jails, white
papers were developed to brief participants on the five target areas. Along with
the environmental scan, these papers were intended to provide background
information to bring everyone to a level playing field, while at the same time
encouraging creative thinking. Approximately one month ahead of scheduled work
group sessions, participants received the white papers, both digitally and in hard
Rob Donlin, at the Center in South Carolina, wrote the “white paper” on technology. He also
prepared the presentation for the two working groups and provided materials for distribution.
Ultimately, Pete Cosgrove, Deputy Director, filled in for Mr. Donlin, (who had left NLECTC prior to
the first session). In addition to presenting the technology white paper, Mr. Cosgrove worked with
participants to provide information about jail-related technology. (It should be noted that NLECTC
participated through use of their own funding from the National Institute of Justice).
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copy format.
Overall reaction to this methodological approach was extremely positive.
Most participants indicated that they shared the white paper package with their
supervisor and/or subordinates, and encouraged them to read it and provide ideas
for them to take to the work group sessions. Many noted that they appreciated
having hard data about issues of concern, and indicated that it provided more
concrete direction for their own strategic planning, as well as helpful
documentation of their funding needs.
To promote deliberations on the targeted topics, the agenda for each
session started with an overview of white paper highlights. Participants then were
assigned to small groups for further discussion and, ultimately, development of
their priorities. The authors of the white papers served as facilitators for the
overview, assisted with group work, and recorded the results.
Those in attendance were also invited to bring with them materials related
to the future of their jail that might be of interest to their colleagues. Four
participants brought materials for distribution, and one (Orange County, Florida)
provided their report via the Internet.8

Notes on Work Group Methodology
Before presenting the recommendations, a few methodological observations
are in order, particularly with regard to the nature of the process and subsequent
findings. Most fundamentally, this project illustrates the inherent tradeoffs
between quantitative and qualitative research. Because its outcomes are based on
information obtained from qualitative discussions rather than quantitative
calculations, they do not reflect the level of precise quantification or highly
http://www.orangecountyfl.net/cms/DEPT/countyadmin/publicsafety/joc/default.htm
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structured responses that can be produced by such objective approaches as survey
research. What subjective methods lack in structure and precision, however, they
compensate for in deeper and more robust insights.
In that regard, an ongoing ebb and flow of open-ended discussions prevailed
throughout the sessions, with one issue often seamlessly blending into another,
thereby making content analysis of the results a considerable challenge, especially
in terms of assigning rankings to the key issues. Moreover, although groups were
instructed to provide a detailed description of each of their priorities, along with
explanatory discussion, everyone did not equally adhere to these directions.
Findings described herein are thus reflective of the inherent tradeoffs involved in
the subjective nature of qualitative research methods, and therefore should be
viewed more as exploratory and descriptive than explanatory and definitive. For
while this project was successful in flushing-out the first iteration of significant
issues faced by jails throughout the country, subsequent efforts will be needed in
order to drill-down further into the specifics of identified priorities as they relate
to BJA roles, responsibilities, and capabilities.

Participant Deliberations
As an ice breaker exercise for each of the two sessions, participants were
asked to identify the biggest challenge or change they have seen in the operation
or management of jails since they began their careers. With their cumulative
experience in law enforcement and corrections totaling nearly 1500 years, it is
perhaps not surprising that their responses demonstrated no particular pattern.
The complete list is reported in Appendix B as background information.
Following the ice breaker exercise, a brief overview of each of the white
papers was presented to stimulate thinking about the range of issues facing jails.
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Participants were then divided into five breakout groups. When making group
assignments, it was determined that discussions would best be facilitated by
keeping those from jails of similar size together.9 Group assignments were
therefore made on the basis of the number of inmate beds contained in the
participant’s jail, (with Group #1 the smallest and #5 the largest).
During their breakout discussions, participants had two major assignments.
First, each group was asked to list their top ten issues, in priority order. After
presenting the results to all of the participants, groups then reconvened to develop
their top five recommendations for BJA’s future funding initiatives--for although
there are many jail issues demanding attention, a considerably smaller number is
within the scope of BJA’s authority and responsibility.

After this approach was used in Las Vegas, those attending were asked if they would recommend
changing it to random assignment in Orlando, but the majority voted to retain size-based small
group assignments.
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Results
Identifying the Top Ten Issues Facing Jails
In developing their first ten issues, participants were instructed to think
broadly, considering the total range of challenges, (not just those where federal
action might help to provide a solution). The spokesperson for each group then
presented these issues, resulting in more debate and discussion. Appendix C lists
the top ten issues identified by each of the ten total groups, (five in Las Vegas;
five in Orlando), which are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4: Summary of the Top Ten Challenges Identified by Participants
Issue

Priority

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Workforce (recruitment, hiring, retention,
training, succession planning)

3

2

3

Medical care (pharmaceuticals; staff;
infectious diseases)

1

3

2

Mental health (care, training, cost,
pharmaceuticals)

2

1

2

Technology / management information
systems / fingerprint systems/ enhanced
security/communications

3
1

1

2

1

1
1

1

1

9
1

1

2

1

2

1

1

1
2
1
1

1

2

9

1

5
4

4

1

Special needs inmates (women, culturally
diverse, transgendered, etc.)

10

1

Re-entry / recidivism

Juveniles

1

1

# of
Times
Mentioned

16

1

1

Immigration /illegal aliens / bi-lingual staff

Criminal justice system collaboration

1

1

Administrative issues (accountability,
performance measures, long range planning,
oversight, internal culture, mission change)

Public education / awareness / political
support / advocacy

5
1

2

Funding (insufficient; unfunded mandates)

Facilities / physical plant

2

10

1

4

1

1

4

1

4

1

1

1

1

1
1

1

1

4
3

1

3

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Strategic threat groups/gangs

2

Community support / social services

3

2

Crowding / population management

2
1

Inmate classification

1
1

Pandemic / disaster preparedness

1

Alternatives to incarceration
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

1

2
1

1

2

1

1

1

Community corrections (improve
effectiveness; stop using jail as only
alternative to probation/parole violation)
Interagency cooperation
Lack of support for small jails

2

1
1

1

1

1
1

1

As noted in Appendix C, there was some divergence of priority issues based
on the size of the jails that participants were representing. As might be
anticipated, smaller jails were more concerned about the basics – e.g., adequacy of
facilities, affordability of available technology, provision of medical and mental
health care 24/7, and the impact of federal immigration policies. But all sizes of
jails shared concerns regarding inmate medical and mental health, including the
steadily increasing number of inmates with more serious physical and psychological
needs, the ever-increasing costs of providing essential care, and the increasingly
isolated position of the jail in terms of assembling community resources to address
these issues. Jails of all sizes also shared two additional frustrations. One
pertains to trying to recruit, hire, train, and retain qualified employees. The other
relates to needing to educate the public and elected officials about the impact of
public policy decisions (or inactions) on local jails.

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Final Reporting Format
To develop the final recommendations to BJA, participants were again
divided into five (5) small groups and asked to list their top five recommendations
for BJA’s future jail initiatives. (Although they were asked to consider the
discussions they had heard thus far, instructions indicated that they were not
limited to considering only those issues, and everyone was encouraged to add any
new thoughts that had been generated by the prior discussions). At this point, the
emphasis was on distinguishing between essentially local issues (such as
recruitment, crowding, community support, etc.) and those where national action
might have an impact. As the closing exercise, each group then presented their
top five recommendations to all participants, (including BJA’s representative),
which again prompted additional discussion and debate.10
However, procedures for the closing exercise differed somewhat between
Las Vegas and Orlando. Initially, the intent in both sessions was for the final topfive issues to be reported independently by each of the five small groups. Since
the group formations were size-based, this would have enabled the reporting of
overall results by organizational size. With five groups providing feedback,
however, it became apparent on the second day in Las Vegas that there would be
insufficient time remaining to maintain this process. Thus, in that session, the
reporting format for making final recommendations to BJA was changed to a more
time sensitive, round-robin style--with each group taking turns and describing one
issue at a time, until all issues addressed by all groups were recorded on the
10

Based on feedback from participants in Las Vegas, a few modifications were made to the agenda
for Orlando. These changes included extending the meeting time by a half-hour each day, taking
more time to introduce BJA to participants, and reducing the time devoted to the overview of white
papers in favor of more group discussion/interaction.
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flipchart. While this approach enabled proceedings to conclude on time, it
diminished the ability to identify priorities according to jail size. Results
described below therefore reflect these differential group reporting formats.

Table 5: Priority Issues for BJA 11
Group #
(Jail Size)

Issue #1

Issue #2

Issue #3

Issue #4

Issue #5

#1 (81-114)

1. Employee
health/
vaccination
policies

6. Networking

11. Model
programs

16. Info.
Sharing

21. Mental
Health Formula
Grants

#2 (167340)

2. Medical

7. Mental
health

12. Hiring/
retention

17. Technology

22. Funding jail
initiatives

#3 (3601190)

3. ADA
Design and
Renovations

8. Medical/
Inmate Mental
Health

13. Disaster
planning

18. Best
practices in jail
mental health

23. Recruitment- and
retention

#4 (12462378)

4 Mental
Health

9. Improve the
image of jails

14. Medical

19. ADA
standards

24. Data and
resources for
jails

#5 (27006750)

5. Disaster
planning

10. Medical/
mental health

15. Inmate
Re-entry

20. Technology

25. Public
relations

Explanatory Details for Table 5
Issue #1:
1. Take a role (in conjunction with Centers for Disease Control (CDC) to change
the vaccination policy (regarding the flu pandemic) of correctional staff;
(moving from Tier 2 to Tier 1).
2. Provide the capacity/strategies/protocols for jails to conduct a medical
services needs assessment to see the “big picture”–identifying what types of
problems inmates are bringing in, what services are available in the community,

It should be noted that although Table 5 reflects only the Orlando deliberations, (since the group
reporting format in Las Vegas did not lend itself to this type of analysis), input from the Las Vegas
groups is contained throughout the narrative of this report.
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how jails can partner with service providers, what pharmaceutical options can
reduce costs, etc.
3. Assist with providing information and resources regarding the requirements of
the Americans with Disabilities Act on renovations and new construction for
jails; guidelines for architects; resources; staffing; equipment.
4. Develop a method for prioritizing mental health conditions – resolve conflicts of
what are “serious” mental health conditions versus “behaviors” of inmates.
5. Identify best practices to address man made and natural disasters which could
impact jails.
Issue #2:
6. Sponsor networking opportunities around topics identified in Orlando and Las
Vegas to create an open forum for these issues. (Maybe create DVD’s that can
be shared across the country).
7. Provide the capacity/strategies/protocols for jails to conduct a mental health
needs assessment, (similar in format to #2); to identify what jails need, what is
available in the community, what partnerships can be forged with providers, etc.
8. Provide assistance/conduct a study to determine a formulary for medications
(e.g., psychotropics, pain management meds, etc.) Determine if jails can buy
from a consortium (such as done by the Veteran’s Administration) to lower
costs of needed formularies.
9. Fund a public relations campaign to change the image of jails in America (to help
with recruiting, so jails do not just end up with the people who have failed to
get other jobs).
10. Address inmate medical care; the high cost of medications, unique diseases,
etc., plus look at the technology aspect of post-release tracking--possibly an
electronic monitoring devise that monitors released inmates to assure that the
take their medications (particularly psychotropics), with a feedback response
and information transmitted to a local mental health team via GPS, to prevent
their re-arrest and incarceration simply because they did not take their
medication(s).
Issue #3:
11. Provide technical assistance to improve hiring and retention practices;
determining hiring levels; training of line officers and supervisors; employee
relations
12. Develop a model disaster planning guide (evacuation plans, etc.)
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13. Provide resources for disaster planning for jails; CDs, DVDs, and multi-agency
approaches.
14. Establish a collaborative process for supporting changes to Medicaid to prevent
inmates from losing their eligibility when incarcerated pre-trial; and shorten
the process of reestablishing their eligibility when released to prevent lapses in
care/medications – which can sometimes mean re-arrest.
15. Provide funding to expand resources for jails. Look at funding for caseworkers,
managers, re-entry coordinators, etc., along with software and computer
systems to help them, as well as evidence-based programs.
Issue #4:
16. Encourage information-sharing (ICE, FBI, DOJ, etc.) with jails, interfacing
information so that everyone has access to necessary databases and model
programs, (especially jails holding immigrants). Jails are often excluded
because they do not meet some definitions of “law enforcement agency”. Jails
have lots of information to share with law enforcement regarding particularly
strategic threat groups (gangs), as well as intelligence regarding criminal aliens.
17. Provide technology grants to jails to improve safety, security, staff efficiency,
identification systems, inmate tracking, staff training.
18. Identify best practices for mental health services in jails; in all sizes and
locations of jails; review use of psychiatric telemedicine, partnerships, etc.
19. Develop a list of what ADA architectural standards are applicable to jails, along
with a process for creating a set of standards that is very specific about what
is appropriate for jails, particularly older (pre-ADA) jails and smaller jails.
20. Use technology as alternatives to building jails; or as a means to build less
expensive facilities by using implanted monitoring devices (vs. fences) and other
emerging technology to keep inmates confined and reduce the population.
Issue #5:
21. Provide a formula grant to manage and treat the mental health population,
setting aside a certain amount of bed space to dedicated mental health
treatment. Smaller jails don’t have the capacity to apply for and/or manage
grants. Need to help smaller jails with strategies to leverage community
resources to get and manage grants. [Note: This group also provided a sixth
recommendation to BJA - Coordinate a national movement to make persons with
mental illness a priority on the public agenda–addressing and getting the
necessary funding and other resources whoever is going to be responsible.]
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22. Provide funding resources for jails for initiatives such as PREA, inmate reentry, pretrial diversion, sentencing alternatives, public awareness and
understanding, etc.
23. Identify best practices in recruitment and retention for jails in all locations and
of all sizes. [Note: This group also identified three additional
recommendations for BJA: provide crisis management training (CIT) model for
jails; facilitate central reporting for infectious diseases to protect inmates and
staff when inmates are transferred from facility to facility; and provide for
information exchange, training for gangs and strategic threat groups in jails
including gathering and interpreting information, policy and practice, inmate
management of gang members, recognition software for tattoos, strategies for
information exchange.]
24. Maintain an ongoing database of available resources for released offenders to
access in case of emergency, along with a template for emergency plans.
25. Get the “value-added” message out to communities about their jails, through
private not-for-profit organizations; identify private foundations that fund
creative initiatives to promote positive changes. [Note: this group also
provided a sixth recommendation regarding identifying how private funding
sources can be used to develop and implement jail programs.]

Recommendations
From the numerous discussions surrounding inmate medical and mental health
care, it seems that much of the concern is related to such public policies as the
deinstitutionalization of persons with mental illness12 and the lack of universal
health care. Together, these public policies are producing increasing numbers of
people with untreated (or underserved) medical ailments and/or psychological
problems. Since these patients are most often among the lowest socioeconomic
levels, they are also among the most likely to become jail inmates. Thus, it is not
surprising to find participants indicating that incoming inmates are now arriving in

See Jeanne B. Stinchcomb, Corrections: Past, Present, and Future (Lanham, MD: American
Correctional Association, 2005): pp. 150-155.
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jail with more numerous, serious, (and therefore), costly medical as well as mental
health conditions – which jails then become Constitutionally, ethically, and fiscally
responsible for treating.
In fact, inmate mental health care has become such a pervasive dilemma that
serious consideration was given by some participants to determining how jails could
obtain certification as mental health hospitals–in order to officially recognize their
responsibility in this regard, and accomplish more effectively what they are now
attempting to do unofficially in the absence of community support. As one group
said, jails need to “move out of the role of being an asylum of last resort.” On the
other hand, it was also observed by another group that if jails do too good a job at
providing mental health services, everyone from politicians to mental health
advocates and community leaders may be satisfied with leaving the situation as it is
– with jails functioning as the “defacto” provider of community mental health
services.
In that regard, participants indicated that most inmates with mental
disabilities “spend their entire pretrial time in jail because they have no means to
bond out,” and that these inmates become high suicide risks. While it was noted
that jails may be able to do a relatively good job of stabilizing a person with mental
illness who is in crisis, it was likewise observed that correctional facilities are “illequipped to deal with longer-term needs,” and once such inmates are released, the
jail has no control over them or ability to prevent their re-offending, re-arrest, or
re-incarceration. As one group described the problem, “it becomes a game, with
each of us [jails, mental health providers, etc.] pushing the problem off on
someone else. Because no one else steps up to the plate, we [jails] do--which
creates the ability of others to step down.” The result has produced “mission
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creep” for the jail, as well as “all sorts of blaming.” But as participants pointed out,
“the bottom line is funding.”
Since mental health services require a substantial fiscal commitment,
participants expressed concern that the question of “Whose responsibility is it?”
keeps being asked but not answered. Most acknowledged that jails have “taken on
things that we really shouldn’t have,” in the absence of any other public agency
willing to do so. Thus, participants advocated taking a “different philosophy” about
their jobs. As one group put it, “we have to stop looking at ourselves as just
jailers, and look at ourselves as part of a social service provider system. Let’s
embrace this problem, fight for the funding, and just do it.”
With regard to inmate health care, participants shared concerns related to
aging populations, pregnant inmates, infectious diseases, the impact of long-term
substance abuse, pre-existing medical conditions, chronic health care needs,
finding qualified medical providers, providing 24/7 coverage, meeting
infrastructure needs (e.g., negative air pressure rooms) and ADA compliance
mandates, along with the skyrocketing medical costs associated with addressing
these ever-growing issues. It was noted that inmates are entering jails with
medical conditions ranging from diabetes to gangrene, which often result from a
long life of inadequate, insufficient, or non-existent medical treatment. Yet some
hospitals are refusing to admit inmates if jails are prohibited by state law from
paying any more than the prevailing Medicaid rate for the inmate’s care. As
participants further explored the predominant medical and mental health issues
facing local jails, they developed the recommendations described below. (Note
that although items are numbered within categories for ease of reference, the
numbers do not reflect priority order).
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CATEGORY 1: INMATE MEDICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH RECOMMENDATIONS
1.

Provide the means for communities to conduct a needs assessment to
establish the “big picture” in terms of what types of medical/mental
health problems jail inmates are bringing in, what services and
standards of care are available in the community, how jails can partner
with community service providers, what pharmaceutical options are
available to reduce costs, how remotely-located jails can access
necessary services, how responsibility for payment can be established,
etc.

2.

Coordinate with a national movement to raise public awareness and
concerning the prevalence of mental illness in society, making this a
national public policy item and a high political priority. This may
include focusing on achieving parity for medical and mental health
insurance coverage, as well as integrating case management to enable
funding and services to follow the individual into the community upon
release from jail.

3.

Facilitate an analysis to identify best practices in mental health (e.g.,
psychiatric telemedicine) for all sizes of jails and in different types
of communities.

4.

Develop a “how to” CD on model programs addressing inmate medical
and mental health issues for mass distribution.

5.

Fund the management and treatment of inmates with mental illness,
including training of jail employees.

6.

Facilitate an analysis of design requirements, staffing, treatment

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planning, etc. for an in-jail mental health facility, (anything from 4-5
beds to 1,000 beds).
7.

Establish a dialogue between jail practitioners and mental health
professionals to more clearly define what is truly a “mental illness” –
i.e., distinguishing between those who have some type of “mental
health issues” and those who are “behavior problems.”

8.

Establish a means for determining common formularies for
psychotropic, pain management, and other medications, (enabling bulk
buying at Medicaid rates), to allow jails to purchase necessary
pharmaceuticals more cost-effectively.

9.

Facilitate the establishment of a crisis intervention team (CIT)
approach in jails similar to the model now used by law enforcement
(i.e., the Memphis model), along with the resources, (particularly in
smaller jails), to enable staff to attend training sessions.

10.

Establish protocols for central reporting of information regarding
diseases to assure communication about health problems among jails.

11.

Provide support at the federal level for jails to effectively respond to
pandemic flu, anthrax contamination, and other epidemics or emerging
threats.13

13

The knowledge about jail responses to the pandemic threat appeared to be uneven in the groups –
with some participants aware of the Centers for Disease Control’s priority for vaccinations for
corrections staff, and others not fully briefed on the issue. The gap among what is known and what
is not known speaks to the need for more consolidated federal assistance.

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CATEGORY 2: WORKFORCE-RELATED RECOMMENDATIONS
The combination of workforce-related issues ranging from recruitment and
retention to training and succession planning dominated much of the remaining
discussion in Las Vegas, and surfaced among the final priorities of three of the
five groups in Orlando. As one participant phrased it, jails “tend to settle for what
we get rather than seek what we want.” Recommendations in this category are
listed below, (again not in any order of priority):
12.

Provide resources to help jails explore more creative and innovative
approaches to recruiting, hiring, and retaining employees, (e.g.,
streamlining the selection process, collaborating with community
partners, hiring part-timers, performance matching, employee
empowerment, participatory management, etc., including ways to work
with unions on workforce issues that impact retention and morale).

13.

Improve staff training, as well as succession planning and leadership
development. In this regard, participants noted the need for
enhancing the relevance, quality, and availability of pre-service, inservice, supervisory, specialized, and leadership training. For example,
in Las Vegas, participants discussed the need for a “national
corrections academy” modeled after the FBI’s National Academy as a
vehicle for training the future jail leaders who will be needed to
replace the substantial number of upcoming retirements.

Especially in smaller jails, concern was expressed that staffing shortages and
resource limitations relegate training to an infrequent luxury. (In fact, AJA
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indicates that few small jail representatives either attend their annual training
conference or participate in AJA’s regional training workshops).14 In addition to
the prohibitive costs, sending even two employees to training can leave a smaller
jail “working at 60% of staffing,” thus generating overtime costs and creating the
type of stressful environment that further promotes turnover. This link between
training and retention in small jails is also manifested in other ways. For example,
when someone becomes skilled in a specialization, they are often so “overworked
and burned-out” that they leave.

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CATEGORY 3: RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO SMALL JAILS
Whether the topic was addressing inmate healthcare needs, arranging for
staff training, accessing information, or accommodating the impact of immigration
policy, it was frequently noted that smaller jails operate at a considerable
disadvantage. Not only do such facilities lack the fiscal resources of their larger
counterparts, but they are often located in more remote rural areas that do not
have access to the same supportive network of hospitals, treatment personnel, and
even other correctional facilities that their urban counterparts enjoy.
Throughout discussions, the participants from smaller jails eloquently
expressed their feelings about being left out of the mainstream of resource
distribution and professional involvement. For example, they pointed out that the
nation’s large jails have formal networking opportunities hosted through NIC (i.e.,
the Large Jail Network) but small jails are not included in this information-sharing.

Ken Kerle, “The Plight of the Small Jail: Challenges, Problems, and Solutions,” American Jails
(May/June, 2007): 5.
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Representatives from smaller jails also spoke about their frustration with
everything from aging facilities to out-of-date technology. Moreover, even when
external funding is available to address some of their problems, they do not have
sufficient resources to apply for or manage grants.
Not only are small jails often “at the bottom of the list” when new federal
funding initiatives emerge, but they cannot compete effectively in terms of impact
because of the limited size of their inmate and community populations. Yet, as one
participant summarized it, “the same issues that affect large jails affect small
jails–except small jails do not have the same power [as large jails] to take up the
issues with the powers-that-be.” In fact, this disparity on the basis of size was a
significant issue for Las Vegas participants, who wanted to see BJA address “the
challenges of tribal and rural jails.” It is therefore recommended that BJA.
14.

Consider developing federal funding initiatives specifically directed to
smaller jails, including providing recommendations for collaboration
with other local organizations to ease the burden of applying for and
managing grants.

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CATEGORY 4: PROGRAMMATIC RECOMMENDATIONS
The other recommendations for BJA which emerged at both sessions related
to the need to more effectively manage inmate re-entry, security threat groups,
technological changes, and immigration policy. More specifically, these included, (in
no particular order):
15.
•

Re-entry initiatives:
Assure that federal funding is not targeted exclusively to state

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departments of corrections, either by providing eligibility for local jails,
or requiring state DOCs to work with jails and pass funding through to
them.
•

Provide the means to develop programs to make more productive use of
“dead time” in jail to help prevent recidivism.

•

Assist jails with developing transition plans (especially aftercare for
persons with mental illness).

•

Encourage jails to identify local resources and forge partnerships with
other community services.

16.
•

Security threat groups:
Create a centralized information-sharing database clearinghouse,
acknowledging that jails are part of law enforcement (since they are often
excluded by Homeland Security and other agencies), that would enable
jails to more effectively deal with terrorism and high-profile inmates,
document decision-making about housing members of security threat
groups (to avoid discrimination claims), and interpret jail intelligence.

•

Conduct staff training on recognizing and responding to threat groups.

•

Develop (or make available) software to help identify and track threat
group members, including tattoo recognition.

16.
•

Natural and Man Made Threats
Provide resources to jail to prepare for natural disasters such as
Hurricane Katrina (scenes of evacuated inmates on overpasses in New
Orleans); and the challenges of responding to domestic and/or

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international terror threats.

17.

Technology:15
Create more timely and user-friendly information for jails (e.g., what new

•

technology is in the pipeline; how it can be used in jails; how to assess it in
terms of cost/benefit; and issues regarding purchase, staff training, and
maintenance).
•

Assist jails with obtaining more security with less structural cost.

•

Help staff adapt to new technology.

•

Develop a “consumer report” for jails, discussing such concepts as new
communications systems, an automated fingerprint system linked to AFIS,
improved security cameras, implantable chips, technological “walls,” more
integrated systems, etc.

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CATEGORY 5: ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
As the facilitators listened to the extensive feedback provided by the
sheriffs and jail administrators at both work group sites, and subsequently,
analyzed their comments in preparation of this report, four additional
recommendations came to mind for BJA consideration:

18.

Co-sponsor with federal partners “one-stop shopping” for jail
resources and information.

In many cases, the resources already exist to begin to address any number
of the issues, problems, and challenges discussed in these working groups. For
Participants were very appreciative of the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology
Center’s inclusion in the sessions. Many had never heard of NLECTC, and/or were unaware of the
corrections implications of their work.
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example, the U. S. Department of Justice’s Disability Rights Section has
information about ADA compliance – both architecturally and programmatic
guidelines on their web site. However, it appears that participants often were not
aware of existing resources or how to access them (e.g., NIC’s Information Center,
the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, jail-related work of the National
Institute of Justice, etc.). Particularly among smaller facilities, the multifaceted
duties of the jail administrators often prevented them from finding even a few
minutes in the day to conduct research or contact peers.

19.

Develop models for jail and community collaboration.

The discussion of many issues surfaced the frustration that participants
have with developing effective community collaborations.

Assisting jails with

models about how to develop collaboration, leverage existing resources, identifying
private sources of funding for jail initiatives, establishing and maintaining
community coalitions would be important additions to the participants’ tool kits to
address many issues raised by the working groups.
In many respects, jail administrators seem to view themselves as struggling
in isolation against overwhelming obstacles and an unsupportive public. Assisting
them with models for developing collaborative relationships, leveraging external
resources, and establishing community coalitions would therefore be important
additions to the toolkits that jail administrators can use to address many of the
issues discussed in this report.

20.

Immigration - Better coordination between federal agencies

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responsible for immigration issues, and local jails.
Although this topic didn’t make the priority list for BJA action, there are
implications for a federal coordinative effort. Especially in the Orlando, where
four jails from Florida discussed the impact of immigration policy of current and
future jail populations, the topic gained interest. One sheriff shared his efforts
to get federal assistance in terms of moving criminal aliens out of his county’s jail –
estimated to cost his county $9 million this year. It was noted that smaller jails
are at a considerable disadvantage with this issue because of the lack of resources
in smaller jails for interpreters to communicate with inmates. Also highlighted was
the lack of information about the arrestees [criminal aliens] to assure that both
the inmate and staff are safe. Additionally, smaller jails, located in more remote
areas are needed for federal detainees because of the lack of other federal
facility.

21.

Sponsorship of national forums for jail administrators.

As is generally the case when professionals get together, the feedback
from both groups placed a high premium on the value of discussions (formal as well
as informal) with their colleagues during these sessions. In Las Vegas, participants
specifically mentioned the need for national forums about timely issues in which all
jail administrators could participate. Especially in light of existing and emerging
technology, pandemic threats, domestic terrorism, and other very time sensitive
issues such timely information-sharing is highly advocated. Using new models from
the private sector in conducting meeting and forums using digital and Internet
resources makes networking easier and certainly most cost effective than travel
by many jail administrators to one site for a meeting. Also, this approach
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addresses the time gap that may exist in traditional or Web publishing of
information for the field.

Summary and Conclusions
In summary, the priorities identified for BJA’s attention by jail
representatives from across the country clearly begin with the multitude of
medical and mental health issues resulting from the displacement of community
responsibility for physical and psychological health care. In that regard,
participants suggested that jails need to explore nothing less than a “fundamental
mission change” that extends their official role beyond traditional incarceration
functions toward becoming an acknowledged medical/mental health service
provider for an unserved segment of the local population. It was further
recommended that discussion of this major philosophical and operational shift by
key stakeholders should occur on an ongoing basis at the national level. Especially
in terms of mental health issues, concern was expressed that the problem cannot
be addressed effectively through an “ad hoc,” community-by-community approach,
but rather, will require the type of public attitude change and widespread
commitment, with funding, that can only be accomplished with a national initiative.
In some respects, this discussion of expanding the jail’s fundamental
mission also relates to the issues that participants ranked next–-i.e., workforcerelated concerns ranging from recruitment, selection, and retention to in-service
training and succession planning. Inasmuch as uncompetitive salary structure
(compared to other public service jobs) is an inhibiting factor in maintaining a highquality workforce, it was noted that jails will need to do “something that benefits
the community, other than just locking someone up” for several weeks in order to
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demonstrate their value and thereby gain support for compensation improvements.
While not generating quite the same level of energetic discussion as
medical/mental health issues and workforce concerns, a tertiary level of interest
emerged around developing re-entry initiatives, as well as coping with technology,
disaster planning, security threat groups, and immigration issues. Particularly with
regard to re-entry endeavors, a similar theme was observed in terms of expanding
the traditionally-recognized mission boundaries of the jail to encompass the
transitional services that have heretofore remained relatively exclusively within
the realm of state corrections systems. Again, jail representatives are looking not
only to officially acknowledge and bring into the operational mainstream a role that
has long been neglected, but also to employ it to enhance their value-added position
in the community.
Aside from the substantive issues, there was also considerable sentiment
expressed that the smaller jails most in need of help are not getting it, which
becomes especially burdensome when coping with unfunded mandates, (such as
PREA). Moreover, the feedback from these work groups likewise indicates that,
regardless of size, the nation’s jails are searching for procedural help in the form
of guidelines, models, best practices, evidence-based approaches, and particularly,
collaborative networking opportunities that embrace jails of all sizes.
Finally, it is notable that throughout discussions in both sessions, a strong
underlying current prevailed in terms of the need to “raise public awareness and
political support for jails at the local, state, and national levels.” Whether it is
familiarizing citizens with the jail’s (in reality, the community’s) mental health
crisis, convincing the public that jail employees are worthy of respectable,
competitive, salaries, or simply raising the awareness of jails on the community’s
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radar screen, participants continuously expressed a necessity to educate the
public, create collaborative partnerships, and bring jail-related issues to the
forefront of the local policy-making agenda. For as long as jails are the
unacknowledged resource for responding to such problems as mental illness,
alcoholism, and drug abuse, “their role will continue to be unclear; their
performance will continue to be less than satisfactory; and their space will
continue to be filled beyond capacity.”16

Stinchcomb, 2005: 159.
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